Seni Karawitan Jawa merupakan salah satu karya seni asli masyarakat Indonesia. Keberadaannya sangat popular pada zaman dahulu sehingga kehadirannya di tengah-tengah masyarakat jawa dapat mengakar ke dalam setiap jiwa masyarakatnya pada masa itu. Perkembangan suatu karya seni selalu menjadi daya tarik tersendiri, bagaimana kesenian tersebut dapat bertahan dalam perputaran zaman yang semakin modern. Begitu juga seni karawitan jawa yang merupakan seni klasik yang dapat dianggap juga sebagai music klasiknya orang barat.
Pada tugas makalah mata kuliah karawitan jawa ini, penulis mencoba untuk menjabarkan perkembangan seni karawitan jawa di Indonesia. Di mulai dari pengertian karawitan itu sendiri, sejarah kseni karawitan jawa, kedudukan seni karawitan jawa di masyarakat, tujuan pelestarian seni karawitan jawa, perkembangan seni karawitan jawa pada zaman sekarang dan kendala-kendala yang dihadapi dalam upaya pelestarian seni karawitan jawa di Indonesia.
Karawitan secara umum adalah kesenian yang meliputi cabang seni yang mengandung unsur-unsur keindahan, halus serta rumit atau ngrawit. Pengertian karawitan secara khusus adalah ekspersi jiwa manusia yang diungkapkan melalui media suara baik vocal maupun instrumentalyang berlaraskan slendro atau pelog (Sangarimbun 1992: 14).
Pengertian di atas dapat ditarik kesimpulan bahwa karawitan adalah suatu jenis karya seni yang merupakan ekspresi jiwa manusia yang melalui media maupun tidak. Media yang digunakan biasanya secara instrumental, mengiringi, yang berupa suatu set gamelan jawa. Gamelan ini terdiri dari beberapa alat musik, seperti gender, slentem, bonang, kenong, kethuk, kendhang, peking, saron, gong dan masih banyak lagi. Alat-alat musik itu tidak dapat dimainkan secara sendirian, melainkan bersama-sama sehingga menimbulkan suatu singkronisasi suara yang indah yang dapat mengiringi suatu lagu. Seni suara (vokal) yang terdapat di dalam karawitan biasanya disebut tembang. Tembang sebagai karya sastra dengan patokan-patokan yang sudah tertentu cara membacanya harus dilagukan. Tembang dalam penyajiannya dapat dilakukan dengan iringan gamelan atau tanpa iringan gamelan. (Sangarimbun 1992: 14--15). Unsur atau elemen pokok yang terdapat dalam karawitan ialah gamelan, laras dan pathet. Gamelan adalah alat music tradisional jawa, bali dan sunda yang pada dasarnya menggunakan laras, slendro dan pelog. Laras ialah susunan nada yang di dalam satu oktaf sudah tertentu. Pathet merupakan wilayah atau susunan nada di dalam laras, dan nada-nada tersebut mempunyai fungsi dan kedudukan sendiri-sendiri (Sangarimbun 1992: 17--18).
Gamelan Jawa merupakan seperangkat instrumen sebagai pernyataan musikal yang sering disebut dengan istilah karawitan. Dalam mitologi Jawa, Gamelan diciptakan oleh Sang Hyang Guru pada Era Saka, Dewa yang menguasai seluruh tanah Jawa, dengan istana di gunung Mahendra di Medangkamulan (sekarang Gunung Lawu). Sang Hyang Guru pertama-tama menciptakan gong untuk memanggil para dewa, dan untuk pesan yang lebih khusus Ia kemudian menciptakan dua gong, lalu akhirnya terbentuk seperangkat Gamelan. Sebagian besar alat musik Gamelan terdiri dari alat musik perkusi yang dimainkan dengan cara dipukul atau ditabuh. Oleh sebab itu pada waktu orang memainkan alat musik Gamelan biasanya disebut “nggamel”. Nggamel adalah bahasa Jawa yang berarti Memukul / Menabuh. Inilah sebenarnya asal usul kata gamelan.
Dahulu pemilikan gamelan ageng Jawa hanya terbatas untuk kalangan istana. Kini siapapun yang berminat dapat memilikinya sepanjang bukan gamelan-gamelan Jawa yang termasuk kategori pusaka. Secara filosofis gamelan jawa merupakan satu bagian yang tak terpisahkan dari kehidupan masyarakat Jawa. Hal demikian disebabkan filsafat hidup masyarakat Jawa berkaitan dengan seni budayanya yang berupa gamelan Jawa serta berhubungan dekat dengan perkembangan religi yang dianutnya. Bagi masyarakat Jawa gamelan mempunyai fungsi estetika yang berkaitan dengan nilai-nilai sosial, moral dan spiritual. Kita harus bangga memiliki alat kesenian tradisional gamelan. Keagungan gamelan sudah jelas ada. Duniapun mengakui bahwa gamelan adalah alat musik tradisional timur yang dapat mengimbangi alat musik barat yang serba besar. Di dalam suasana bagaimanapun suara gamelan mendapat tempat di hati masyarakat. Gamelan dapat digunakan untuk mendidik rasa keindahan seseorang. Orang yang biasa berkecimpung dalam dunia karawitan, rasa kesetiakawanan tumbuh, tegur sapa halus, tingkah laku sopan. Semua itu karena jiwa seseorang menjadi sehalus gendhing-gendhing. Gamelan dibunyikan atau digunakan untuk mengiringi pergelaran wayang, mengiringi tari-tarian, mengiringi upacara sekaten, upacara kenegaraan/keagamaan, mengiringi klenengan untuk hal-hal tertentu (upacara nikah, ngundhuh mantu dan lain-lain). Seni karawitan (musik pentatonis) mendapatkan kedudukan yang istimewa di dunia seni pertunjukan Indonesia. Tentu saja, pernyataan ini tidak sekedar pujian atau basi-basi tanpa alasan. Di Surakarta dan Yogyakarta (eks ibukota kerajaan) yang hingga sekarang menjadi pusat budaya (kesenian), seni karawitan dapat berkembang bebas, baik di lingkungan njeron beteng (kraton) maupun luar kraton. Hampir setiap kelurahan di Yogyakarta memiliki seperangkat gamelan (alat musik Jawa), bahkan ada yang lebih dari satu unit. Belum lagi gamelan milik personal, baik dari kalangan bangsawan kraton, seniman maupun masyarakat biasa. Di sela-sela kesibukan masyarakat, dapat dipastikan ada aktivitas nabuh gamelan yang dilakukan rutin berkala. Ada kelompok yang beranggotakan pria dewasa, wanita dewasa, remaja serta anak-anak.
Tujuan pelestarian seni karawitan jawa sudah jelas, yaitu melestarikan keberadaan seni karawitan jawa di masyarakat agar tidak punah. Hal ini dikarenakan seni karawitan jawa merupakan asaet budaya yang besar yang dimiliki oleh masyarakat Indonesia pada umumnya dan masyarakat jawa pada khususnya. Suatu asset besar bangsa Indonesia jika hilang atau pun punah akan menjadi suatu kehilangan yang sangat besar. Sejarah akan sangat kecewa jika pada akhirnya seni karawitan jawa yang merupakan suatu mahakarya orang-orang terdahulu tidak diteruskan oleh generasi muda zaman sekarang.
Lantas, bagaimanakah perkembangan pelestarian seni karawitan jawa di zaman sekarang? Upaya pelestarian seni karawitan jawa telah digalakkan oleh berbagai kalangan. Mengingat begitu pentingnya pelestarian seni karawitan jawa ini. Upaya-upaya pelestarian diantaranya dengan memasukkan muatan lokal jawa pada sekolah dasar, memasukkan kurikulum pendidikan jawa pada sekolah menengah dan lanjutan atas, membuka kelas karawitan jawa pada universitas, menyediakan seperangkat gamelan pada instansi pemerintah dan lain sebagainya. Semua hal itu bertujuan untuk melestarikan seni karawitan jawa agar tidak hilang atau punah. Namun, semua hal itu tidak akan berhasil jika tidak ada dukungan dari berbagai pihak, terutama pemerintah dan generasi muda yang akan meneruskan seni karawitan jawa ini. Upaya lain yang dilakukan adalah mempromosikan seni karawitan jawa pada dunia luar, negara lain, yang akhir-akhir ini sangat gencar dilakukan untuk mengenalkan salah satu karya seni bangsa Indonesia. Sebagai contoh yaitu didirikannya sebuah perkumpulan yang khusus untuk memainkan gamelan di Belanda, Amerika Serikat dan negara-negara lain. Mereka menikmati setiap alunan musik yang dihasilkan oleh gamelan jawa dan menyanyikan dengan penuh ketentraman dan semnagat yang tinggi. Dampak pengenalan pada dunia luar dapat positif maupun negatif. Positif karena seni karawitan jawa dapat terus dilestarikan dan bahkan lebih luas pengenalannya hingga mancanegara. Negatif yang ditimbulkan dapat berupa pengakuan dari negara lain karena merasa lebih melestarikan ataupun sama-sama berasal dari negaranya. Hal itulah yang harus dihindari agar seni karawitan jawa tetap lestari, namun tidak diakui negara lain. Upaya tersebut dapat terwujud jika ada dorongan yang kuat di dalam setiap diri masyarakat Indonesia untuk melestarikan seni karawitan jawa ini.
Banyak kendala yang ditemui dalam upaya pelestarian seni karawitan jawa di Indonesia. Kendala-kendala tersebut seperti kurangnya dana untuk membeli seperangkat gamelan yang cukup mahal. Mahalnya perangkat gamelan jawa disebabkan karena semakin sedikitnya produsen pembuat perangkat gamelan jawa dan berkurangnya bahan baku pembuatannya. Selain itu, kurangnya dukungan pemerintah dalam promosi karawitan jawa kepada masyarakat luas, terutama masyarakat jawa. Namun, sekarang telah muncul sebuah acara di televis yang menggunakan perpaduan gamelan jawa dan wayang orang yang dapat menghibur masyarakat. Selain menghibur juga dapat sebagai media pengenalan yang efektif. Kendala lain yaitu minimnya minat generasi muda untuk menekuni seni karawitan jawa karena lebih memilih menekuni seni lain ataupun seni dari barat. Hal ini desebabkan karena mereka menganggap karawitan jawa sebagai karya kuno dan ketinggalan zaman daripada musik/seni barat. Kemungkinan ketidakpedulian masyarakat turutama generasi muda juga dapat menjadi fackor minimnya minat kepada seni karawitan jawa. Selain beberapa hal yang disebutkan masih terdapat beberapa faktor yang lain yang merupakan pengembangan dari beberapa faktor di atas.
Tentunya dengan semakin sering kita berkarawitan, semakin tinggi cinta kita terhadapnya. Semakin tinggi pula rasa ingin melestarikan. Pelestarian seni karawitan jawa kini bukanlah sekadar keinginan, namun lebih merujuk kea rah kebutuhan. Ada upaya dari para seniman jawa untuk menciptakan suasana baru, yaitu dengan memainkan damelan sebagai instrument musik kontemporer zaman sekarang. Upaya itu diharapkan akan meningkatkan minat generasi muda untuk melestarikan seni karawitan jawa. Pelestarian seni kaawitan jawa bukanlah hanya tanggungjawab para seniman, melainkan semua masyarakat Indonesia karena karawitan jawa merupakan bagian dari budaya Indonesia yang harus dilestarikan.
Sumber :
1. Sangarimbun, M..1992.Garamata, perjuangannya melawah penjajahan Belanda, 1901-1905.P.T. Balai Pustaka, Jakarta : 125 hlm, http://books.google.com/books?id=kr-SO-T0ufsC&pg=PA14&dq=karawitan+jawa&hl=en&ei=KY_aTb2kNIvtrQeahs35BQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC0Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=karawitan%20jawa&f=false, 23 Mei 2011, pk. 23.52
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Rabu, 25 Mei 2011
Senin, 23 Mei 2011
Ph.D scholarship in Risk Assessment and Regulation of Mixture Toxicity
GESS - the Graduate Programme in Environmental Stress Studies - is
offering a Ph.D. scholarship to be affiliated with the Department of
Environmental, Social and Spatial Change (ENSPAC), Roskilde
University. The ph.d. is partly funded by the Velux foundation as it
is part of a larger project involving The Danish Ecological Council
and the Danish Technical University. The scholarship is for a period
of 3 years and shall be filled as soon as possible, within the area
Risk Assessment and Regulation of Mixture toxicity
The thesis should aim at addressing the implementation of mixture
toxicity into European chemicals regulation, with focus on REACH and
the Water Framework Directive.
In general, we have a good fundamental understanding of the
theoretical knowledge regarding how to access mixture effects, and two
well tested models are currently used within mixture toxicity
prediction namely Concentration Addition and Independent Action. These
models may possibly be used in a tiered manner with Concentration
Addition as the default prediction model. Some of the major persisting
knowledge gaps is concerned with i) how this knowledge can be applied
to real life mixture scenarios, ii) how it can be implemented in the
specific risk assessment scenarios that constitute the foundation of
the two above mentioned regulations and iii) what kind of information
is needed to reach this point. The focus of the thesis should address
these issues. This produced science shall subsequently be used by the
Danish Ecological Council both in order to improve the policy process
regarding the development of mixture toxicity regulation within EU and
for educational purposes.
The following tasks and questions will be addressed:
· Literature search on state-of-the-art of mixture toxicity
and risk assessment.
· Can recommendations be made on how to select chemicals for
specific mixture toxicity assessment?
· Can a general guideline for mixture toxicity assessment be
constructed, in order to facilitate a uniform and more comprehensive
implementation of mixture toxicity
· Is it possible to conduct mixture toxicity testing with
experimental design including limited replicates and where full dose
response curves might not be obtainable?
· Concentration Addition and Independent Action can in
principle by applied as soon as we have data for single chemical
toxicity. But how can they be applied in reality to the data that is
already present?
· Is it feasible to apply Concentration addition as a default
prediction model rather than evaluating both Concentration Addition
and Independent Action?
These questions should be addressed from a theoretical perspective,
and the study does thus not have an experimental dimension from the
start.
The successful candidate should have a natural scientific background
with experience regarding biology, and (eco)toxicology. Experience
with mixture toxicity assessment will be an advantage – but is not a
requirement. Furthermore it is recommended that the candidate has a
good flair regarding the implementation of science in regulation, and
a understanding of the use of models in science/regulation.
Further information can be obtained by contacting Ph.d. Secretary
Jytte Bach, tlf. 46 74 21 43, email: jyb@ruc.dk or GESS Director,
Assoc. Prof. Henriette Selck, tlf. 46 74 29 83, email: selck@ruc.dk.
Successful candidates will be enrolled in the Graduate Programme in
Environmental Stress Studies (GESS) in accordance with the rules
issued by the Ministry of Technology and Science and additional
regulations issued by Roskilde University. They will be employed in
accordance with the agreement between the Ministry of Finance and AC
(the Danish confederation of Professional Associations). Candidates
receiving GESS scholarships are automatically registered in the
school. They are expected to participate actively in relevant courses,
seminars and other activities arranged by GESS.
The application should include:
Project description of 4-6 pages
A time plan
Candidate certificate
Curriculum vitae
Letters of recommendation
The applicants are not requested to submit a budget, however any
extraordinary expenses associated with the project should be
indicated.
We must receive your application on or before Friday 10 June 2011.
We only accept applications through our electronic recruitment system.
To apply for the position you must go to the job advertisement on our
homepage: www.ruc.dk/job/phd/. Click on the button Apply for vacancy
here which appears immediately below the job advertisement. Then you
fill the application form and attach those in the job advertisement
mentioned documents. Finish by clicking Submit.
Roskilde University encourages all interested applicants, regardless
of age, sex, religious or ethnic background to apply.
https://ssl1.peoplexs.com/Peoplexs22/CandidatesPortalNoLogin/Vacancy.cfm?PortalID=2711&VacatureID=154687&BedrijfID=0&Vacancy=Ph.D.%20Scholarship%20in%20Risk%20Assessment%20and%20Regulation%20of%20Mixture%20Toxicity%20#top
offering a Ph.D. scholarship to be affiliated with the Department of
Environmental, Social and Spatial Change (ENSPAC), Roskilde
University. The ph.d. is partly funded by the Velux foundation as it
is part of a larger project involving The Danish Ecological Council
and the Danish Technical University. The scholarship is for a period
of 3 years and shall be filled as soon as possible, within the area
Risk Assessment and Regulation of Mixture toxicity
The thesis should aim at addressing the implementation of mixture
toxicity into European chemicals regulation, with focus on REACH and
the Water Framework Directive.
In general, we have a good fundamental understanding of the
theoretical knowledge regarding how to access mixture effects, and two
well tested models are currently used within mixture toxicity
prediction namely Concentration Addition and Independent Action. These
models may possibly be used in a tiered manner with Concentration
Addition as the default prediction model. Some of the major persisting
knowledge gaps is concerned with i) how this knowledge can be applied
to real life mixture scenarios, ii) how it can be implemented in the
specific risk assessment scenarios that constitute the foundation of
the two above mentioned regulations and iii) what kind of information
is needed to reach this point. The focus of the thesis should address
these issues. This produced science shall subsequently be used by the
Danish Ecological Council both in order to improve the policy process
regarding the development of mixture toxicity regulation within EU and
for educational purposes.
The following tasks and questions will be addressed:
· Literature search on state-of-the-art of mixture toxicity
and risk assessment.
· Can recommendations be made on how to select chemicals for
specific mixture toxicity assessment?
· Can a general guideline for mixture toxicity assessment be
constructed, in order to facilitate a uniform and more comprehensive
implementation of mixture toxicity
· Is it possible to conduct mixture toxicity testing with
experimental design including limited replicates and where full dose
response curves might not be obtainable?
· Concentration Addition and Independent Action can in
principle by applied as soon as we have data for single chemical
toxicity. But how can they be applied in reality to the data that is
already present?
· Is it feasible to apply Concentration addition as a default
prediction model rather than evaluating both Concentration Addition
and Independent Action?
These questions should be addressed from a theoretical perspective,
and the study does thus not have an experimental dimension from the
start.
The successful candidate should have a natural scientific background
with experience regarding biology, and (eco)toxicology. Experience
with mixture toxicity assessment will be an advantage – but is not a
requirement. Furthermore it is recommended that the candidate has a
good flair regarding the implementation of science in regulation, and
a understanding of the use of models in science/regulation.
Further information can be obtained by contacting Ph.d. Secretary
Jytte Bach, tlf. 46 74 21 43, email: jyb@ruc.dk or GESS Director,
Assoc. Prof. Henriette Selck, tlf. 46 74 29 83, email: selck@ruc.dk.
Successful candidates will be enrolled in the Graduate Programme in
Environmental Stress Studies (GESS) in accordance with the rules
issued by the Ministry of Technology and Science and additional
regulations issued by Roskilde University. They will be employed in
accordance with the agreement between the Ministry of Finance and AC
(the Danish confederation of Professional Associations). Candidates
receiving GESS scholarships are automatically registered in the
school. They are expected to participate actively in relevant courses,
seminars and other activities arranged by GESS.
The application should include:
Project description of 4-6 pages
A time plan
Candidate certificate
Curriculum vitae
Letters of recommendation
The applicants are not requested to submit a budget, however any
extraordinary expenses associated with the project should be
indicated.
We must receive your application on or before Friday 10 June 2011.
We only accept applications through our electronic recruitment system.
To apply for the position you must go to the job advertisement on our
homepage: www.ruc.dk/job/phd/. Click on the button Apply for vacancy
here which appears immediately below the job advertisement. Then you
fill the application form and attach those in the job advertisement
mentioned documents. Finish by clicking Submit.
Roskilde University encourages all interested applicants, regardless
of age, sex, religious or ethnic background to apply.
https://ssl1.peoplexs.com/Peoplexs22/CandidatesPortalNoLogin/Vacancy.cfm?PortalID=2711&VacatureID=154687&BedrijfID=0&Vacancy=Ph.D.%20Scholarship%20in%20Risk%20Assessment%20and%20Regulation%20of%20Mixture%20Toxicity%20#top
Minggu, 22 Mei 2011
Chinese Government Scholarship Program for International Students
Full and Partial Funded Scholarships for International Students by the Government of China
Level: Undergraduate, Masters, PhD, Chinese language training, Senior and General Scholar
Chinese Government Scholarship program is established by the Ministry of Education of P.R. China (hereinafter referred to as MOE) in accordance with educational exchange agreements or understandings reached between Chinese government and governments of other countries, organizations, education institutions and relevant international organizations to provide both full scholarships and partial scholarships to international students and scholars. MOE entrusts China Scholarship Council (hereinafter referred to as CSC) to manage the recruitment and carry out the routine management of Chinese Government Scholarship Programs.
Scholarship Application Deadline: April 30th, 2011
APPLICATION
Applicants shall apply to Chinese diplomatic missions or dispatching authorities between January and April every year. Applicants may contact the above authorities for deadlines for application.
CRITERIA and ELIGIBILITY
1. Applicants must be non-Chinese citizens and in good health.
2. Education background and age limit:
- Applicants for undergraduate program must have senior high school diploma with good academic performance and be under the age of 25.
- Applicants for master’s degree program must have bachelor’s degree and be under the age of 35.
- Applicants for doctoral degree program must have master’s degree and be under the age of 40.
- Applicants for Chinese training program must have senior high school diploma and be under the age of 35, Chinese language is the only subject available.
- Applicants for general scholar program must have completed at least two years of undergraduate study and be under the age of 45, all subjects besides Chinese language are available.
- Applicants for senior scholar program must have master’s degree or above, or hold academic titles of associate professor or above, and be under the age of 50.
VALUES OF SCHOLARSHIP
1. Full Scholarship
- Exempt from registration fee, tuition fee, fee for laboratory experiment, fee for internship, and fee for basic learning materials; and accommodation fee for dormitory on campus;
- Living allowance;
- One-off settlement subsidy after registration;
- Fee for outpatient medical service, Comprehensive Medical Insurance and Protection Program for International Students in China;
- One-off inter-city travel subsidy.
Note:
1) Costs of the laboratory experiment or internship beyond the institution’s arrangements should be self-afforded.
2) Fee for basic learning materials only covers the necessary learning materials prescribed by the host institution, and other textbooks and materials shall be self-afforded.
3) Monthly allowance is granted to the students through the host institution at the following rates (CNY Yuan per month):
- Undergraduates & Chinese language students: CNY 1,400 Yuan
- Master’s degree students & general scholars: CNY 1,700 Yuan
- Doctoral degree students & senior scholars: CNY 2,000 Yuan
Scholarship students shall receive their monthly living allowance after registration. New students who register before 15th (15th included) of the registration month will get the full amount of living allowance of that month, and those who register after 15th will get half amount of that month. Students upon graduation will get a living allowance for another 15 days after the graduation date set by the university. The allowance will be terminated from the following month after students suspend their studies, drop school or complete schooling from the university. Monthly living allowance covers school holidays. Scholarship students who missed the monthly living allowance during holidays could be reimbursed upon their return on campus. The allowance will be suspended for at least one month for those students who do not register on time without permission from the university, leave for non-health reasons or are absent from university over a month.
Students who have to suspend their studies for pregnancy or for health reasons are required to go back to their home countries for labor or for treatment. The international travel expenses should be covered by the students themselves. With the university’s approval, the scholarship status can be reserved for up to one year and their living allowances will be suspended during their leave. The scholarship status will not be reserved for those who suspend their studies for other reasons.
4) New students will get a one-off settlement subsidy upon their arrival in China.
- CNY 1,000 Yuan for new students who will study in China less than one academic year
- CNY 1,500 Yuan for new students who will study in China for one academic year and above
5) Fee for outpatient medical service refers to the outpatient expense in the institution’s hospital or the hospitals entrusted by the institution. The students are to cover a certain percentage of expense in accordance with the institution’s regulations.
6) Comprehensive Medical Insurance and Protection Program for International Students in China is provided by MOE for the scholarship students in China in case of hospitalizing for serious diseases and accidental injuries. The institutions or the entrusted medical assistance agencies provide advancement service for insurance expenses, and claim for compensation with relevant payment receipts from the insurance company according to the stipulated insurance articles. For scholarship student, the individual claim will not be accepted by the insurance company.
7) One-off inter-city travel subsidy (each for coming-in and leaving China)
A hard-seat train ticket (hard-berth train ticket for overnight trip) will be provided for scholarship students traveling
From the port of entry upon registration to the city where the admitting institution or Chinese language training institution or preparatory education institution is located;
From the Chinese language training institution or the preparatory education institution to the city where the university for major study is located;
From the city where the institution is located to the nearest port for departure upon graduation.
Meal and excess of baggage should be self-afforded.
In principle, the port of entry is Beijing, or a port of entry near where the university is located.
2. Partial Scholarship
One or several items of full scholarship (one-off settlement subsidy and one-off inter-city travel allowance excluded).
APPLICATION DOCUMENTS
The applicants must fill in and provide the following documents truly, correctly and completely (in duplicates).
1. Application Form for Chinese Government Scholarship ?filled in Chinese or English?
Those who are available for online application shall fill in and print the application form after submitting it online.
The CSC Online Application System for Study in China is available on http://laihua.csc.edu.cn .
Those who cannot apply online shall contact the dispatching authorities to get the application form and fill it truly, correctly and completely.
2. Highest diploma (notarized photocopy): Applicants shall also provide proof of studying on application. Documents in languages other than Chinese or English must be attached with notarized translations in Chinese or English.
3. Academic transcripts (notarized photocopy): Transcripts in languages other than Chinese or English must be attached with notarized translations in Chinese or English.
4. A study or research plan. All applicants are required to submit a study or research plan. It must be in Chinese or in English.
5. Recommendation letters: Applicants for postgraduate studies, or study in China as senior scholars must submit two letters of recommendation in Chinese or English from professors or associate professors. Applicants who apply in China shall submit the Admission Notice or Invitation Letter issued by the targeted university.
6. Applicants for music studies are requested to submit a CD of the applicants’ own works. Applicants for fine arts programs must submit a CD of the applicants’ own works (including two sketches, two color paintings and two other works).
7. Applicants under the age of 18 should submit the legal documents of their legal guardians in China.
8. Photocopy of Foreigner Physical Examination Form (The original copy should be kept by the applicant. The form printed by Chinese quarantine authority could be downloaded from http://www.csc.edu.cn). The medical examinations must cover all the items listed in the Foreigner Physical Examination Form. Incomplete records or those without the signature of the attending physician, the official stamp of the hospital or a sealed photograph of the applicants are invalid. Please select the appropriate time to take medical examination as it is valid for only 6 months.
The above documents should be forwarded to CSC by April 30th, 2011 via either the Chinese diplomatic mission in the applicant’s home country or the embassy of the applicant’s home country in China. Individual applications are not accepted by CSC. Application documents will not be returned.
SELECTION OF INSTITUTIONS AND SPECIALTIES
Applicants can choose one academic program and three institutions as their preferences from the Chinese HEIs designated by MOE. Please check the Directory of Chinese Higher Institutions Admitting International Students under Chinese Government Scholarship Program. Only the listed Chinese HEIs in the Directory are available to the applicants for their study in China.
APPROVAL AND NOTIFICATION
1. CSC will assess all the application documents and CSC reserves the right to make necessary adjustments on the proposed institutions, specialties and duration of study. The qualified applications will be forwarded to institutions for academic competence and they will forward their nominations to CSC for agreement. The applications will be regarded as invalid and will not be accepted if they fail to meet the enrollment requirements or the application documents are incomplete.
2. If overseas applicants for degree programs with exemption of examinations are academically ineligible to the proposed programs, the institution reserves the right to decide the academic program they could attend or whether to give them conditional offers for their proposed programs. Students who attend Chinese language courses prior to their university study or those attend the college preparatory program must pass the university entrance examinations or other examinations required before they start their major studies. Students attending the college preparatory program, who fail to pass the required examinations within the due period, shall complete their study as Chinese language students.
3. Applicants are required to enclose the admission notice from Chinese HEIs, if they have, in the documents submitted to CSC.
4. Scholarship applicants academically accepted by Chinese HEIs will be officially awarded the Chinese Government Scholarship with the approval from CSC.
5. Students are not permitted, in principle, to apply to change their specialties, institutions or the duration of study as specified in the Admission Notice.
6. CSC will send the Admission Notice and Visa Application Form for Study in China (JW201) to dispatching authorities by July 31st , 2011, who will forward the documents to the students.
Further scholarship information and application, including information about study in China, please see the official website:
http://en.csc.edu.cn/Laihua/4acd2f2e7d2d454ab1af1233ad4fc7b5.shtml
Level: Undergraduate, Masters, PhD, Chinese language training, Senior and General Scholar
Chinese Government Scholarship program is established by the Ministry of Education of P.R. China (hereinafter referred to as MOE) in accordance with educational exchange agreements or understandings reached between Chinese government and governments of other countries, organizations, education institutions and relevant international organizations to provide both full scholarships and partial scholarships to international students and scholars. MOE entrusts China Scholarship Council (hereinafter referred to as CSC) to manage the recruitment and carry out the routine management of Chinese Government Scholarship Programs.
Scholarship Application Deadline: April 30th, 2011
APPLICATION
Applicants shall apply to Chinese diplomatic missions or dispatching authorities between January and April every year. Applicants may contact the above authorities for deadlines for application.
CRITERIA and ELIGIBILITY
1. Applicants must be non-Chinese citizens and in good health.
2. Education background and age limit:
- Applicants for undergraduate program must have senior high school diploma with good academic performance and be under the age of 25.
- Applicants for master’s degree program must have bachelor’s degree and be under the age of 35.
- Applicants for doctoral degree program must have master’s degree and be under the age of 40.
- Applicants for Chinese training program must have senior high school diploma and be under the age of 35, Chinese language is the only subject available.
- Applicants for general scholar program must have completed at least two years of undergraduate study and be under the age of 45, all subjects besides Chinese language are available.
- Applicants for senior scholar program must have master’s degree or above, or hold academic titles of associate professor or above, and be under the age of 50.
VALUES OF SCHOLARSHIP
1. Full Scholarship
- Exempt from registration fee, tuition fee, fee for laboratory experiment, fee for internship, and fee for basic learning materials; and accommodation fee for dormitory on campus;
- Living allowance;
- One-off settlement subsidy after registration;
- Fee for outpatient medical service, Comprehensive Medical Insurance and Protection Program for International Students in China;
- One-off inter-city travel subsidy.
Note:
1) Costs of the laboratory experiment or internship beyond the institution’s arrangements should be self-afforded.
2) Fee for basic learning materials only covers the necessary learning materials prescribed by the host institution, and other textbooks and materials shall be self-afforded.
3) Monthly allowance is granted to the students through the host institution at the following rates (CNY Yuan per month):
- Undergraduates & Chinese language students: CNY 1,400 Yuan
- Master’s degree students & general scholars: CNY 1,700 Yuan
- Doctoral degree students & senior scholars: CNY 2,000 Yuan
Scholarship students shall receive their monthly living allowance after registration. New students who register before 15th (15th included) of the registration month will get the full amount of living allowance of that month, and those who register after 15th will get half amount of that month. Students upon graduation will get a living allowance for another 15 days after the graduation date set by the university. The allowance will be terminated from the following month after students suspend their studies, drop school or complete schooling from the university. Monthly living allowance covers school holidays. Scholarship students who missed the monthly living allowance during holidays could be reimbursed upon their return on campus. The allowance will be suspended for at least one month for those students who do not register on time without permission from the university, leave for non-health reasons or are absent from university over a month.
Students who have to suspend their studies for pregnancy or for health reasons are required to go back to their home countries for labor or for treatment. The international travel expenses should be covered by the students themselves. With the university’s approval, the scholarship status can be reserved for up to one year and their living allowances will be suspended during their leave. The scholarship status will not be reserved for those who suspend their studies for other reasons.
4) New students will get a one-off settlement subsidy upon their arrival in China.
- CNY 1,000 Yuan for new students who will study in China less than one academic year
- CNY 1,500 Yuan for new students who will study in China for one academic year and above
5) Fee for outpatient medical service refers to the outpatient expense in the institution’s hospital or the hospitals entrusted by the institution. The students are to cover a certain percentage of expense in accordance with the institution’s regulations.
6) Comprehensive Medical Insurance and Protection Program for International Students in China is provided by MOE for the scholarship students in China in case of hospitalizing for serious diseases and accidental injuries. The institutions or the entrusted medical assistance agencies provide advancement service for insurance expenses, and claim for compensation with relevant payment receipts from the insurance company according to the stipulated insurance articles. For scholarship student, the individual claim will not be accepted by the insurance company.
7) One-off inter-city travel subsidy (each for coming-in and leaving China)
A hard-seat train ticket (hard-berth train ticket for overnight trip) will be provided for scholarship students traveling
From the port of entry upon registration to the city where the admitting institution or Chinese language training institution or preparatory education institution is located;
From the Chinese language training institution or the preparatory education institution to the city where the university for major study is located;
From the city where the institution is located to the nearest port for departure upon graduation.
Meal and excess of baggage should be self-afforded.
In principle, the port of entry is Beijing, or a port of entry near where the university is located.
2. Partial Scholarship
One or several items of full scholarship (one-off settlement subsidy and one-off inter-city travel allowance excluded).
APPLICATION DOCUMENTS
The applicants must fill in and provide the following documents truly, correctly and completely (in duplicates).
1. Application Form for Chinese Government Scholarship ?filled in Chinese or English?
Those who are available for online application shall fill in and print the application form after submitting it online.
The CSC Online Application System for Study in China is available on http://laihua.csc.edu.cn .
Those who cannot apply online shall contact the dispatching authorities to get the application form and fill it truly, correctly and completely.
2. Highest diploma (notarized photocopy): Applicants shall also provide proof of studying on application. Documents in languages other than Chinese or English must be attached with notarized translations in Chinese or English.
3. Academic transcripts (notarized photocopy): Transcripts in languages other than Chinese or English must be attached with notarized translations in Chinese or English.
4. A study or research plan. All applicants are required to submit a study or research plan. It must be in Chinese or in English.
5. Recommendation letters: Applicants for postgraduate studies, or study in China as senior scholars must submit two letters of recommendation in Chinese or English from professors or associate professors. Applicants who apply in China shall submit the Admission Notice or Invitation Letter issued by the targeted university.
6. Applicants for music studies are requested to submit a CD of the applicants’ own works. Applicants for fine arts programs must submit a CD of the applicants’ own works (including two sketches, two color paintings and two other works).
7. Applicants under the age of 18 should submit the legal documents of their legal guardians in China.
8. Photocopy of Foreigner Physical Examination Form (The original copy should be kept by the applicant. The form printed by Chinese quarantine authority could be downloaded from http://www.csc.edu.cn). The medical examinations must cover all the items listed in the Foreigner Physical Examination Form. Incomplete records or those without the signature of the attending physician, the official stamp of the hospital or a sealed photograph of the applicants are invalid. Please select the appropriate time to take medical examination as it is valid for only 6 months.
The above documents should be forwarded to CSC by April 30th, 2011 via either the Chinese diplomatic mission in the applicant’s home country or the embassy of the applicant’s home country in China. Individual applications are not accepted by CSC. Application documents will not be returned.
SELECTION OF INSTITUTIONS AND SPECIALTIES
Applicants can choose one academic program and three institutions as their preferences from the Chinese HEIs designated by MOE. Please check the Directory of Chinese Higher Institutions Admitting International Students under Chinese Government Scholarship Program. Only the listed Chinese HEIs in the Directory are available to the applicants for their study in China.
APPROVAL AND NOTIFICATION
1. CSC will assess all the application documents and CSC reserves the right to make necessary adjustments on the proposed institutions, specialties and duration of study. The qualified applications will be forwarded to institutions for academic competence and they will forward their nominations to CSC for agreement. The applications will be regarded as invalid and will not be accepted if they fail to meet the enrollment requirements or the application documents are incomplete.
2. If overseas applicants for degree programs with exemption of examinations are academically ineligible to the proposed programs, the institution reserves the right to decide the academic program they could attend or whether to give them conditional offers for their proposed programs. Students who attend Chinese language courses prior to their university study or those attend the college preparatory program must pass the university entrance examinations or other examinations required before they start their major studies. Students attending the college preparatory program, who fail to pass the required examinations within the due period, shall complete their study as Chinese language students.
3. Applicants are required to enclose the admission notice from Chinese HEIs, if they have, in the documents submitted to CSC.
4. Scholarship applicants academically accepted by Chinese HEIs will be officially awarded the Chinese Government Scholarship with the approval from CSC.
5. Students are not permitted, in principle, to apply to change their specialties, institutions or the duration of study as specified in the Admission Notice.
6. CSC will send the Admission Notice and Visa Application Form for Study in China (JW201) to dispatching authorities by July 31st , 2011, who will forward the documents to the students.
Further scholarship information and application, including information about study in China, please see the official website:
http://en.csc.edu.cn/Laihua/4acd2f2e7d2d454ab1af1233ad4fc7b5.shtml
Postgraduate Courses for Professionals with Relevance to Developing Countries 2012/2013
Postgraduate Courses for Professionals with Relevance to Developing Countries 2012/2013
CALL for APPLICATION: March 2011 – Study in Germany
(Deadline 28th July 2011)
The German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) – Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst – supports a range of postgraduate courses at German universities which aim at providing academically educated young professionals from Developing Countries with further specialized studies. The DAAD supports these selected programs with a certain quota of scholarships and with financial assistance for a special tutoring system. At the end of the course (programs run 12 to 36 months, depending on the particular institution) participants can obtain an internationally recognized Master’s or in some courses PhD degree.
Target group:
University teaching staff, researchers and professionals holding an academic degree and with at least two years of experience in the public or private institutions in the following areas:
Economic Sciences / Business Administration/ Political Economics
Development Co-operation
Engineering and related sciences
Mathematics
Regional Planning
Agricultural and Forest Sciences
Environmental Sciences
Public Health / Veterinary Medicine / Medicine
Social Science, Education and Law
Media Studies
Criteria for applying:
Age limit: 36 years of age at the time of application (for some courses 32 years)
For some courses, Bachelor degree should have been completed not longer than 6 years at the time of application. Concerning this matter, please directly contact the coordinator of the respective study program
Degree: Bachelor or Master
GPA: min 2,75 for Master candidates (some study programs applied GPA more than 2,75. Please see the detail on the website of each study program) and 3,00 for Doctoral candidates
Work experience: at least two years after completing Bachelor degree.
Language skill:
For postgraduate courses held in English request an international TOEFL (minimum score: 550 paper based, 213 computer based, 80 internet based) or IELTS (band 6). Some courses may expect a different level. For detailed information see the website of the relevant course.
For postgraduate courses held in German: please see the details on the course list. Certain level of German language exam may be required before admission to the course.
Contact Information
Information and DAAD form are available from the:
DAAD Jakarta Office
Summitmas I, Lt. 19
Jl. Jenderal Sudirman Kav. 61-62
Jakarta 12190
Consultation hours: Monday – Thursday, 1:30pm – 4:00pm
Contact person: Ms. Dwi Nurlianti/Ms. Muji Rahayu
Phone: (021) 520 0870 / 525 2807
Fax: (021) 525 2822
E-mail: info@daadjkt.org
Further postgraduate courses information, application documents, and how to apply, visit the official website:
http://www.daadjkt.org/index.php?postgraduate-1
CALL for APPLICATION: March 2011 – Study in Germany
(Deadline 28th July 2011)
The German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) – Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst – supports a range of postgraduate courses at German universities which aim at providing academically educated young professionals from Developing Countries with further specialized studies. The DAAD supports these selected programs with a certain quota of scholarships and with financial assistance for a special tutoring system. At the end of the course (programs run 12 to 36 months, depending on the particular institution) participants can obtain an internationally recognized Master’s or in some courses PhD degree.
Target group:
University teaching staff, researchers and professionals holding an academic degree and with at least two years of experience in the public or private institutions in the following areas:
Economic Sciences / Business Administration/ Political Economics
Development Co-operation
Engineering and related sciences
Mathematics
Regional Planning
Agricultural and Forest Sciences
Environmental Sciences
Public Health / Veterinary Medicine / Medicine
Social Science, Education and Law
Media Studies
Criteria for applying:
Age limit: 36 years of age at the time of application (for some courses 32 years)
For some courses, Bachelor degree should have been completed not longer than 6 years at the time of application. Concerning this matter, please directly contact the coordinator of the respective study program
Degree: Bachelor or Master
GPA: min 2,75 for Master candidates (some study programs applied GPA more than 2,75. Please see the detail on the website of each study program) and 3,00 for Doctoral candidates
Work experience: at least two years after completing Bachelor degree.
Language skill:
For postgraduate courses held in English request an international TOEFL (minimum score: 550 paper based, 213 computer based, 80 internet based) or IELTS (band 6). Some courses may expect a different level. For detailed information see the website of the relevant course.
For postgraduate courses held in German: please see the details on the course list. Certain level of German language exam may be required before admission to the course.
Contact Information
Information and DAAD form are available from the:
DAAD Jakarta Office
Summitmas I, Lt. 19
Jl. Jenderal Sudirman Kav. 61-62
Jakarta 12190
Consultation hours: Monday – Thursday, 1:30pm – 4:00pm
Contact person: Ms. Dwi Nurlianti/Ms. Muji Rahayu
Phone: (021) 520 0870 / 525 2807
Fax: (021) 525 2822
E-mail: info@daadjkt.org
Further postgraduate courses information, application documents, and how to apply, visit the official website:
http://www.daadjkt.org/index.php?postgraduate-1
PhD scholarships at DTU Nanotech Technical University of Denmark
PhD scholarships at DTU Nanotech
Technical University of Denmark
A number of PhD scholarships are available at the Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology, DTU Nanotech, starting in the summer/fall of 2011. The subject of the PhD project must be within one of the main research areas of the department:
Cleanroom based micro- and nanofabrication
Polymer micro- and nanoengineering
Synthesis and self assembly of nanostructures
Lab-on-a-chip technology
Diagnostics and drug delivery
Miniaturised sensor and energy technology
Nanobiotechnology
Theory of micro- and nanosystems
Qualifications
Candidates should have (or soon obtain) a master’s degree in or a similar degree with an equivalent academic level. Candidates may apply prior to obtaining their master’s degree, but cannot begin the PhD education before having received the grade.
To apply for these scholarships candidates must have an agreement with a supervisor at DTU Nanotech about a specified project. Therefore, for a candidate to be considered for the scholarships, endorsement and project description must be enclosed. See under “Application”.
Approval and Enrolment
The scholarships are subject to academic approval and the candidates will be enrolled in one of the PhD programmes at DTU. For information about the general requirements for enrolment and the general planning of the scholarship studies, please see the DTU PhD Guide.
Salary and appointment terms
The salary and appointment terms are consistent with the current rules for PhD students at DTU. The period of employment is 3 years.
DTU needs diversity and supports equal opportunities irrespective of gender, age, and ethnic back¬ground.
Application
We must have your online application by 13 May 2011 at the latest. Apply online at www.dtu.dk/career. Please open the link “apply for this job online”, fill in the application form and attach all of the following documents:
Curriculum vitae of the applicant including a list of publications(guidelines)
A letter motivating the application (guidelines)
Grade transcripts and BSc/MSc diploma
Conversion of grade averages to Danish grades (excel spreadsheet for the conversion)
Description of the proposed research project (guidelines) (to be attached under “Attach other relevant file”)
Endorsement by the DTU Nanotech supervisor (guidelines) (to be attached under “Attach other relevant file”)
Application Deadline: 13 May 2011
Further information is available at PhD at the Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology or by contacting senior consultant Anne Line Mikkelsen, phone +45 45255858, e-mail anne.line.mikkelsen(at)nanotech.dtu.dk.
DTU Nanotech – the Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology – is situated in the northern part of Copenhagen. DTU Nanotech is a centre of excellence in micro- and nanotechnology exploiting sciences across the traditional boundaries of technology, thereby enabling innovative solutions for the benefit of society. DTU Nanotech has approx. 200 people on its staff. With 40 % non-Danes, the department constitutes an international environment.
via: http://www.career.edu/index.php?post_id=8953
Technical University of Denmark
A number of PhD scholarships are available at the Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology, DTU Nanotech, starting in the summer/fall of 2011. The subject of the PhD project must be within one of the main research areas of the department:
Cleanroom based micro- and nanofabrication
Polymer micro- and nanoengineering
Synthesis and self assembly of nanostructures
Lab-on-a-chip technology
Diagnostics and drug delivery
Miniaturised sensor and energy technology
Nanobiotechnology
Theory of micro- and nanosystems
Qualifications
Candidates should have (or soon obtain) a master’s degree in or a similar degree with an equivalent academic level. Candidates may apply prior to obtaining their master’s degree, but cannot begin the PhD education before having received the grade.
To apply for these scholarships candidates must have an agreement with a supervisor at DTU Nanotech about a specified project. Therefore, for a candidate to be considered for the scholarships, endorsement and project description must be enclosed. See under “Application”.
Approval and Enrolment
The scholarships are subject to academic approval and the candidates will be enrolled in one of the PhD programmes at DTU. For information about the general requirements for enrolment and the general planning of the scholarship studies, please see the DTU PhD Guide.
Salary and appointment terms
The salary and appointment terms are consistent with the current rules for PhD students at DTU. The period of employment is 3 years.
DTU needs diversity and supports equal opportunities irrespective of gender, age, and ethnic back¬ground.
Application
We must have your online application by 13 May 2011 at the latest. Apply online at www.dtu.dk/career. Please open the link “apply for this job online”, fill in the application form and attach all of the following documents:
Curriculum vitae of the applicant including a list of publications(guidelines)
A letter motivating the application (guidelines)
Grade transcripts and BSc/MSc diploma
Conversion of grade averages to Danish grades (excel spreadsheet for the conversion)
Description of the proposed research project (guidelines) (to be attached under “Attach other relevant file”)
Endorsement by the DTU Nanotech supervisor (guidelines) (to be attached under “Attach other relevant file”)
Application Deadline: 13 May 2011
Further information is available at PhD at the Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology or by contacting senior consultant Anne Line Mikkelsen, phone +45 45255858, e-mail anne.line.mikkelsen(at)nanotech.dtu.dk.
DTU Nanotech – the Department of Micro- and Nanotechnology – is situated in the northern part of Copenhagen. DTU Nanotech is a centre of excellence in micro- and nanotechnology exploiting sciences across the traditional boundaries of technology, thereby enabling innovative solutions for the benefit of society. DTU Nanotech has approx. 200 people on its staff. With 40 % non-Danes, the department constitutes an international environment.
via: http://www.career.edu/index.php?post_id=8953
Slovak Government Scholarships for International Students, Slovak Republic
Slovak Government Scholarships for International Students, Slovak Republic
Scholarship Details: The provision of development aid of the Slovak Republic (SR) in the area of education takes the form of the award of scholarships of the Government of the SR that are consistent with the conditions approved by the Government Resolution No.344/2010 of 25 May 2010 for developing countries and for Slovaks living abroad, the Government Resolution No. 625/2008, of 17 September 2008, for academic year 2011/2012.
The official range of scholarship positions available is annually notified through the diplomatic offices of the SR abroad.
Under the development aid for the developing countries, the official offer is sent to the ministry of foreign affairs of the relevant country in accordance with the approved breakdown of countries and scholarship places in particular academic years.
Under the aid to Slovaks living abroad, the offer is sent to the official compatriot representatives according to the approved breakdown of countries and scholarship positions in relevant academic years.
Scholarship Application Deadline: 30 May 2011
Further Scholarship Information and Application
http://office.studyin.sk/grants/
Download Application for granting a scholarship – document in PDF format
http://office.studyin.sk/files/content/files/applicationGOV.pdf
Scholarship Details: The provision of development aid of the Slovak Republic (SR) in the area of education takes the form of the award of scholarships of the Government of the SR that are consistent with the conditions approved by the Government Resolution No.344/2010 of 25 May 2010 for developing countries and for Slovaks living abroad, the Government Resolution No. 625/2008, of 17 September 2008, for academic year 2011/2012.
The official range of scholarship positions available is annually notified through the diplomatic offices of the SR abroad.
Under the development aid for the developing countries, the official offer is sent to the ministry of foreign affairs of the relevant country in accordance with the approved breakdown of countries and scholarship places in particular academic years.
Under the aid to Slovaks living abroad, the offer is sent to the official compatriot representatives according to the approved breakdown of countries and scholarship positions in relevant academic years.
Scholarship Application Deadline: 30 May 2011
Further Scholarship Information and Application
http://office.studyin.sk/grants/
Download Application for granting a scholarship – document in PDF format
http://office.studyin.sk/files/content/files/applicationGOV.pdf
DIGESTI
Laporan Praktikum Genetika
DIGESTI (PEMOTONGAN DNA) DENGAN ENZIM RESTRIKSI
Faiq Anan M*), A.R. Junaid, D.C. Waluyo, D. Oktavia, N. Nikita, R. Guspratiwi, P.S. Pangestu
Universitas Indonesia
Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam
Departemen Biologi
Mei 2011
Abstrak
Digesti merupakan suatu metode pemotongan fragmen DNA menggunakan enzim restriksi. Pemotongan bertujuan mendapatkan suatu sekuens yang spesifik. Enzim restriksi dapat memotong secara spesifik fragmen-fragmen pada DNA. Hasil pemotongan dapat berupa ‘sticky’ dan ‘blunt’. Penamaan enzim restriksi menggunakan sebuah sistem nomenklatur sendiri. Telah dilakukan praktikum digesti (pemotongan fragmen DNA) dengan enzim restriksi. Jenis enzim restriksi yang digunakan adalah BanI. Hasil praktikum divisualisasi dalam geldoc yang sebelumnya dielektroforesis terlebih dahulu. Terlihat band yang telah dipotong oleh enxim restriksi.
.
Kata kunci: Enzim restriksi, sticky end, digesti
1. Pendahuluan
DNA hasil isolasi masih berupa sekuens yang panjang dengan fragmen-fragmen yang masih saling berikatan. Pemotongan dengan suatu enzim pada DNA tersebut dilakukan untuk menghasilkan sekuens DNA tertentu yang spesifik. Enzim restriksi dapat mengenali situs penganalan pada DNA secara spesifik dan memotongnya secara spesifik.
Digesti merupakan proses pemotongan fragmen DNA dengan menggunakan suatu enzim khusus yaitu enzim restriksi. Enzim restriksi yang digunakan yaitu enzim restriksi endonuklease yang akan mengenali dan memotong fragmen DNA pada sekuen yang spesifik. Fragmen yang dipotong akan digabungkan dengan suatu fragmen DNA lain yang berperan sebagai vektor. Vektor merupakan molekul DNA yang dapat bereplikasi secara autonom yang akan memfasilitasi proses manipulasi dan identifikasi molekul DNA rekombinan yang terbentuk (Klug & Cummings 1994: 383).
Prinsip dasar dari teknologi DNA rekombinan adalah sebuah golongan enzim yang disebut restriksi endonuklease. Enzim ini diisolasi dari bakteri, diperoleh dari namanya karena mereka membatasi atau mencegah infeksi virus dengan memotong asam nukleat yang datang. Enzim restriksi mengenal sebuah sekuen nukleotida spesifik dan menghasilkan suatu kerusakan dobel helix di dalam atau di dekat dari sekuens (Klug & Cummings 1994 : 384).
Situs pemotongan enzim restriksi terdapat dua macam, yaitu di dalam lokus dan di tepi lokus, atau bisanya disebut eksonuklease dan endonuklease. Sedangkan hasil pemotongan terdapat dua yaitu, blunt end dan sticky end. Blunt end menghasilkan hasil akhir pemotongan yang tumpul, sedangkan pada sticky end menghasilkan pemotongan yang lancip. Pemotongan blunt end menghasilkan masalah ketika dicoba untuk diklonkan. Hal ini berbeda dengan hasil sticky end yang lebih efisien (Reece 2004: 187--188). Pemotongan enzim restriksi yang dapat menghasilkan ujung yang dinamakan “sticky” yang dapat saling menempel antara ujung DNA satu dengan ujung DNA yang lain. Kedua DNA dengan ujung sticky jika ditempatkan pada kondisi yang tepat, maka dapat membentuk molekul rekombinan dengan menempelkan kedua ujungnya. Penempelan kedua ujung dibantu oleh enzim ligase (Klug & Cummings 1994: 384).
Dua jenis enzim erestriksi endonuklease telah ditemukan, dan lebih dari 80 enzim dari ketiga tipe sudah dikenali. Enzim restriksi tipe I mengenali suatu DNA pada suatu lokasi secara acak pada beberapa jarak dari situs pengenalannya. Enzim restriksi tipe II mengenali suatu sekuens spesifik dan memotong dengan tepat kedua untai di dalam sekuens. Enzim restriksi tipe II ini, situs pengenalannya berupa palindromik yang membaca secara sama arah 5’ ke 3’ pada untai komplementer. Tipe III enzim restriksi mengenali urutan DNA yang spesifik dan memotong di dekat situs pengenalannya, biasanya sekitar 25 bp. Dari 3 jenis, enzim tipe II yang sering digunakan pada genetic engineering. Satu diantara enzim yang ditemukan berasal dari E. coli dan telah diberi nama ECoR1 (Klug & Cummings 1994 : 384 ; Pierce. 2002: 510).
Nomenklatur enzim restriksi berasal dari tiga huruf pertama dari singkatan untuk setiap enzim restriksi mengacu pada spesies bakteri dari mana enzim diisolasi (misalnya, Eco mengacu pada E. coli). Huruf keempat dapat merujuk pada strain bakteri dari mana enzim diisolasi (huruf "R" dalam EcoRI menunjukkan bahwa enzim ini diisolasi dari RY13 strain E. coli). Angka Romawi yang mengikuti huruf memungkinkan enzim berbeda dari spesies yang sama untuk diidentifikasi. Untuk kenyamanan, ahli genetika molekuler telah menyebutksn dengan istimewa pengucapan nama-nama tersebut, misal : EcoRI dilafalkan "echo-R-one," adalah HindIII "hin-D-three," dan HaeIII adalah "hae-three." lafal ini umum tidak mematuhi aturan-aturan formal dan hanya harus dipelajari (Pierce. 2002: 511).
Perkembangan teknik-teknik biologi molekular, salah satunya menciptakan teknik digesti yang dapat diaplikasikan dalam penelitian genetik serta mempermudah dalam mendapatkan DNA yang mengkode gen spesifik dalam jumlah besar. Selain itu, digesti merupakan salah satu teknik yang mendukung studi ekspresi, struktur, dan organisasi gen. Metode tersebut juga mendukung perkembangan industri bioteknologi yang telah menghasilkan banyak produk di tingkat pasaran (Klug & Clummings 1994: 384).
Praktikum digesti (pemotongan fragmen DNA) dengan enzim restriksi dilakukan dengan tiga tujuan. Pertama, mengetahui pengertian dan prinsip kerja digesti. Kedua, memahami dan mengetahui fungsi enzim restriksi. Ketiga, mengetahui aturan nomenklatur enzim restriksi..
2. Metodologi
Praktikum digesti (pemotongan fragmen DNA) dengan enzim restriksi menggunakan alat-alat dan bahan-bahan tertentu. Alat-alat yang digunakan pada praktikum Digesti (pemotongan DNA) dengan enzim restriksi yaitu, mikropipet, tube, sarung tangan, tabung 1,5 ml, kotak es dan inkubator. Bahan-bahan yang digunakan yaitu, enzim BanI 20 U/μl, Buffer NE4 10x, Nuclease free water, sampel DNA darah.
Cara kerja yang dilakukan yaitu pertama reaction mixture dimasukkan ke dalam tube. Reaction mixture berisi enzim BanI 0,5 μl, Buffer NE4 10x 1,2 μl, Nuclease free water 3,65 μl dan amplikon 10 μl. Kedua, tube diinkubasi selama empat jam pada suhu 37oC. Ketiga, hasil inkubasi dielektrolisis kemudian hasilnya divisualisasi pada geldoc.
3. Hasil Pengamatan
Hasil yang diperoleh pada praktikum digesti fragmen DNA dengan enzim restriksi yaitu visualisasi gel doc hasil digesti yang dapat dilihat pada gambar berikut.
4. Pembahasan
Enzim restriksi yang digunakan dalam praktikum yaitu enzim BanI U/µl. Enzim tersebut berasal dari bakteri Bacillus aneurinolyticus (IAM 1077). Panjang sekuensnya 354 AA dan berfungsi dalam molekular sebagai endonuklease, hydrolase dan nuklease. Marka yang digunakan dalam praktikum yaitu Marker Øx/HaeIII. Jenis marka tersebut memiliki dua tipe yaitu N3026L dan N3026S. marka N3026L memiliki ukuran 250 gel lanes dengan konsentrasi 1000 mg/µl. Marka N3026S memiliki ukuran gel lanes dengan konsentrasi 1000 mg/µl.
Berdasarkan hasil visualisasi dapat ditentukan ukruan berat suatu protein dengan menggunakan marka. Semua sampel dari kelompok 1B sampai kelompok 5B memiliki dua band yang spesifik yaitu ukuran antara 118b--194bp dan 234 bp. Sedangkan sampel kelompok 6B hanya mempunyaiampel satu band yang berukuran antara 310bp--603bp.
Berdasarkan literatur, proses digesti diawali dengan pengenalan fragmen DNA sampel pada sekuen yang spesifik oleh enzim restriksi, dalam hal ini enzim restriksi endonuklease. Fragmen kemudian bergabung dengan molekul DNA lain yang berperan sebagai vektor. Vektor terserbut dapat melakukan replikasi secara autonom atau mandiri dan membantu proses pembentukan molekul DNA rekombinan. Vektor kemudian dimasukkan ke dalam host cell, tempat dihasilkan kopian fragmen DNA yang dinamakan Clones. Clones merupakan molekul DNA rekombinan yang mengandung vektor dan fragmen DNA sampel yang telah mengalami replikasi. Clones kemudian diisolasi dari host cell, dipurifikasi, dan dianalisis (Klug & Cummings 1994: 383).
Proses digesti menggunakan larutan nuclease free water, larutan ini digunakan sebagai pelarut dari semua bahan-bahan. Kemudian Buffer NE4 10x, larutan ini digunakan untuk menjaga pH larutan selama proses digesti. Selain itu juga digunakan enzim BanI yang akan mengenali dan memotong fragmen DNA sampel pada sekuen yang spesifik.
5. Kesimpulan
Kesimpulan yang didapat praktikan dari praktikum digesti (pemotongan fragmen DNA) dengan enzim restriksi yaitu :
1. Digesti merupakan proses pemotongan DNA menggunakan enzim restriksi.
2. Enzim restriksi merupakan suatu enzim yang dapat memotong secara spesifik sekuens tertentu pada suatu DNA.
3. Penamaan enzim restriksi berdasarkan nama bekteri yang digunakan, baik nama genus maupun nama spesies, nama strain bakteri dan nomor bakteri tersebut digunakan sebagai bahan pembuatan enzim.
6. Daftar Pustaka
Klug, W. S. & M. R. Cummings. 1994. Concept of genetics. 4th Ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood cliffs: xvi + 779 hlm.
Pierce, B.A., GENETICS: A Conceptual approach, 3th Ed. 2002. Paperback: xxv + 711 hlm.
Reece,.J.R.2004.Analysis of genes and genomes.J.H. Willey & Sons : xvii + 459 hlm.
DIGESTI (PEMOTONGAN DNA) DENGAN ENZIM RESTRIKSI
Faiq Anan M*), A.R. Junaid, D.C. Waluyo, D. Oktavia, N. Nikita, R. Guspratiwi, P.S. Pangestu
Universitas Indonesia
Fakultas Matematika dan Ilmu Pengetahuan Alam
Departemen Biologi
Mei 2011
Abstrak
Digesti merupakan suatu metode pemotongan fragmen DNA menggunakan enzim restriksi. Pemotongan bertujuan mendapatkan suatu sekuens yang spesifik. Enzim restriksi dapat memotong secara spesifik fragmen-fragmen pada DNA. Hasil pemotongan dapat berupa ‘sticky’ dan ‘blunt’. Penamaan enzim restriksi menggunakan sebuah sistem nomenklatur sendiri. Telah dilakukan praktikum digesti (pemotongan fragmen DNA) dengan enzim restriksi. Jenis enzim restriksi yang digunakan adalah BanI. Hasil praktikum divisualisasi dalam geldoc yang sebelumnya dielektroforesis terlebih dahulu. Terlihat band yang telah dipotong oleh enxim restriksi.
.
Kata kunci: Enzim restriksi, sticky end, digesti
1. Pendahuluan
DNA hasil isolasi masih berupa sekuens yang panjang dengan fragmen-fragmen yang masih saling berikatan. Pemotongan dengan suatu enzim pada DNA tersebut dilakukan untuk menghasilkan sekuens DNA tertentu yang spesifik. Enzim restriksi dapat mengenali situs penganalan pada DNA secara spesifik dan memotongnya secara spesifik.
Digesti merupakan proses pemotongan fragmen DNA dengan menggunakan suatu enzim khusus yaitu enzim restriksi. Enzim restriksi yang digunakan yaitu enzim restriksi endonuklease yang akan mengenali dan memotong fragmen DNA pada sekuen yang spesifik. Fragmen yang dipotong akan digabungkan dengan suatu fragmen DNA lain yang berperan sebagai vektor. Vektor merupakan molekul DNA yang dapat bereplikasi secara autonom yang akan memfasilitasi proses manipulasi dan identifikasi molekul DNA rekombinan yang terbentuk (Klug & Cummings 1994: 383).
Prinsip dasar dari teknologi DNA rekombinan adalah sebuah golongan enzim yang disebut restriksi endonuklease. Enzim ini diisolasi dari bakteri, diperoleh dari namanya karena mereka membatasi atau mencegah infeksi virus dengan memotong asam nukleat yang datang. Enzim restriksi mengenal sebuah sekuen nukleotida spesifik dan menghasilkan suatu kerusakan dobel helix di dalam atau di dekat dari sekuens (Klug & Cummings 1994 : 384).
Situs pemotongan enzim restriksi terdapat dua macam, yaitu di dalam lokus dan di tepi lokus, atau bisanya disebut eksonuklease dan endonuklease. Sedangkan hasil pemotongan terdapat dua yaitu, blunt end dan sticky end. Blunt end menghasilkan hasil akhir pemotongan yang tumpul, sedangkan pada sticky end menghasilkan pemotongan yang lancip. Pemotongan blunt end menghasilkan masalah ketika dicoba untuk diklonkan. Hal ini berbeda dengan hasil sticky end yang lebih efisien (Reece 2004: 187--188). Pemotongan enzim restriksi yang dapat menghasilkan ujung yang dinamakan “sticky” yang dapat saling menempel antara ujung DNA satu dengan ujung DNA yang lain. Kedua DNA dengan ujung sticky jika ditempatkan pada kondisi yang tepat, maka dapat membentuk molekul rekombinan dengan menempelkan kedua ujungnya. Penempelan kedua ujung dibantu oleh enzim ligase (Klug & Cummings 1994: 384).
Dua jenis enzim erestriksi endonuklease telah ditemukan, dan lebih dari 80 enzim dari ketiga tipe sudah dikenali. Enzim restriksi tipe I mengenali suatu DNA pada suatu lokasi secara acak pada beberapa jarak dari situs pengenalannya. Enzim restriksi tipe II mengenali suatu sekuens spesifik dan memotong dengan tepat kedua untai di dalam sekuens. Enzim restriksi tipe II ini, situs pengenalannya berupa palindromik yang membaca secara sama arah 5’ ke 3’ pada untai komplementer. Tipe III enzim restriksi mengenali urutan DNA yang spesifik dan memotong di dekat situs pengenalannya, biasanya sekitar 25 bp. Dari 3 jenis, enzim tipe II yang sering digunakan pada genetic engineering. Satu diantara enzim yang ditemukan berasal dari E. coli dan telah diberi nama ECoR1 (Klug & Cummings 1994 : 384 ; Pierce. 2002: 510).
Nomenklatur enzim restriksi berasal dari tiga huruf pertama dari singkatan untuk setiap enzim restriksi mengacu pada spesies bakteri dari mana enzim diisolasi (misalnya, Eco mengacu pada E. coli). Huruf keempat dapat merujuk pada strain bakteri dari mana enzim diisolasi (huruf "R" dalam EcoRI menunjukkan bahwa enzim ini diisolasi dari RY13 strain E. coli). Angka Romawi yang mengikuti huruf memungkinkan enzim berbeda dari spesies yang sama untuk diidentifikasi. Untuk kenyamanan, ahli genetika molekuler telah menyebutksn dengan istimewa pengucapan nama-nama tersebut, misal : EcoRI dilafalkan "echo-R-one," adalah HindIII "hin-D-three," dan HaeIII adalah "hae-three." lafal ini umum tidak mematuhi aturan-aturan formal dan hanya harus dipelajari (Pierce. 2002: 511).
Perkembangan teknik-teknik biologi molekular, salah satunya menciptakan teknik digesti yang dapat diaplikasikan dalam penelitian genetik serta mempermudah dalam mendapatkan DNA yang mengkode gen spesifik dalam jumlah besar. Selain itu, digesti merupakan salah satu teknik yang mendukung studi ekspresi, struktur, dan organisasi gen. Metode tersebut juga mendukung perkembangan industri bioteknologi yang telah menghasilkan banyak produk di tingkat pasaran (Klug & Clummings 1994: 384).
Praktikum digesti (pemotongan fragmen DNA) dengan enzim restriksi dilakukan dengan tiga tujuan. Pertama, mengetahui pengertian dan prinsip kerja digesti. Kedua, memahami dan mengetahui fungsi enzim restriksi. Ketiga, mengetahui aturan nomenklatur enzim restriksi..
2. Metodologi
Praktikum digesti (pemotongan fragmen DNA) dengan enzim restriksi menggunakan alat-alat dan bahan-bahan tertentu. Alat-alat yang digunakan pada praktikum Digesti (pemotongan DNA) dengan enzim restriksi yaitu, mikropipet, tube, sarung tangan, tabung 1,5 ml, kotak es dan inkubator. Bahan-bahan yang digunakan yaitu, enzim BanI 20 U/μl, Buffer NE4 10x, Nuclease free water, sampel DNA darah.
Cara kerja yang dilakukan yaitu pertama reaction mixture dimasukkan ke dalam tube. Reaction mixture berisi enzim BanI 0,5 μl, Buffer NE4 10x 1,2 μl, Nuclease free water 3,65 μl dan amplikon 10 μl. Kedua, tube diinkubasi selama empat jam pada suhu 37oC. Ketiga, hasil inkubasi dielektrolisis kemudian hasilnya divisualisasi pada geldoc.
3. Hasil Pengamatan
Hasil yang diperoleh pada praktikum digesti fragmen DNA dengan enzim restriksi yaitu visualisasi gel doc hasil digesti yang dapat dilihat pada gambar berikut.
4. Pembahasan
Enzim restriksi yang digunakan dalam praktikum yaitu enzim BanI U/µl. Enzim tersebut berasal dari bakteri Bacillus aneurinolyticus (IAM 1077). Panjang sekuensnya 354 AA dan berfungsi dalam molekular sebagai endonuklease, hydrolase dan nuklease. Marka yang digunakan dalam praktikum yaitu Marker Øx/HaeIII. Jenis marka tersebut memiliki dua tipe yaitu N3026L dan N3026S. marka N3026L memiliki ukuran 250 gel lanes dengan konsentrasi 1000 mg/µl. Marka N3026S memiliki ukuran gel lanes dengan konsentrasi 1000 mg/µl.
Berdasarkan hasil visualisasi dapat ditentukan ukruan berat suatu protein dengan menggunakan marka. Semua sampel dari kelompok 1B sampai kelompok 5B memiliki dua band yang spesifik yaitu ukuran antara 118b--194bp dan 234 bp. Sedangkan sampel kelompok 6B hanya mempunyaiampel satu band yang berukuran antara 310bp--603bp.
Berdasarkan literatur, proses digesti diawali dengan pengenalan fragmen DNA sampel pada sekuen yang spesifik oleh enzim restriksi, dalam hal ini enzim restriksi endonuklease. Fragmen kemudian bergabung dengan molekul DNA lain yang berperan sebagai vektor. Vektor terserbut dapat melakukan replikasi secara autonom atau mandiri dan membantu proses pembentukan molekul DNA rekombinan. Vektor kemudian dimasukkan ke dalam host cell, tempat dihasilkan kopian fragmen DNA yang dinamakan Clones. Clones merupakan molekul DNA rekombinan yang mengandung vektor dan fragmen DNA sampel yang telah mengalami replikasi. Clones kemudian diisolasi dari host cell, dipurifikasi, dan dianalisis (Klug & Cummings 1994: 383).
Proses digesti menggunakan larutan nuclease free water, larutan ini digunakan sebagai pelarut dari semua bahan-bahan. Kemudian Buffer NE4 10x, larutan ini digunakan untuk menjaga pH larutan selama proses digesti. Selain itu juga digunakan enzim BanI yang akan mengenali dan memotong fragmen DNA sampel pada sekuen yang spesifik.
5. Kesimpulan
Kesimpulan yang didapat praktikan dari praktikum digesti (pemotongan fragmen DNA) dengan enzim restriksi yaitu :
1. Digesti merupakan proses pemotongan DNA menggunakan enzim restriksi.
2. Enzim restriksi merupakan suatu enzim yang dapat memotong secara spesifik sekuens tertentu pada suatu DNA.
3. Penamaan enzim restriksi berdasarkan nama bekteri yang digunakan, baik nama genus maupun nama spesies, nama strain bakteri dan nomor bakteri tersebut digunakan sebagai bahan pembuatan enzim.
6. Daftar Pustaka
Klug, W. S. & M. R. Cummings. 1994. Concept of genetics. 4th Ed. Prentice Hall, Englewood cliffs: xvi + 779 hlm.
Pierce, B.A., GENETICS: A Conceptual approach, 3th Ed. 2002. Paperback: xxv + 711 hlm.
Reece,.J.R.2004.Analysis of genes and genomes.J.H. Willey & Sons : xvii + 459 hlm.
Karawitan Jawa Sejajar dengan Musik Klasik Barat
Karawitan Jawa Sejajar dengan Musik Klasik Barat
Surakarta, CyberNews. Tak disangkal lagi, karawitan Jawa sudah menembus lapisan masyarakat internasional. Tak hanya unsur estetik musikal, namun terkandung nilai unik, keberagaman, toleransi, demokrasi, kemerdekaan, dan unsur universal lainnya. Faktor itu membuat karawitan terdorong mendunia.
''Pakar musik asing terus mengkaji dari berbagai sisi, dan menyebarkannya ke seluruh dunia. Ketertarikan itu merupakan sebuah pengakuan kesetaraan kualitas karawitan dengan musik barat. Derajat keklasikan karawitan sejajar dengan musik klasik barat,'' kata Prof DR Waridi SKar MHum dalam pidato pengukuhannya sebagau guru besar Ilmu Karawitan di Institut Seni Indonesia (ISI) Surakarta, Rabu (15/11).
Pidato pengukuhan diselingi dengan iringan berbagai gending, untuk menunjukan beberapa cirikhas perkembangan karawitan Jawa.
Dia mencontohkan, saat ini di Amerika terdapat lebih dari 200 perangkat gamelan jawa. Juga di Inggris, Belanda, Australia, Jepang, Jerman, New Zeland, yang punya puluhan perangkat. Secara intensif gamelan dipelajari tidak sekadar sebagai alat musik, namun juga dari sisi teori dan keilmuan.
''Malah akhir-akhir ini gamelan sudah mengalir ke negeri Cina, Skotlandia, Austria, dan negara-negara Eropa Timur. Itu semua merupakan jalan panjang yang dilewati secara dinamis, sesuai dengan dinamika sosial dan budaya masyarakat. Karawitan pun tampil sebagai multifaced (banyak ragam), yang memiliki dimensi multi,'' tandas dia.
Derajat keklasikan karawitan tidak saja terkait dengan perjalanan waktu, namun berhubungan dengan kualitas musikal, sistem dan organisasi, orkestrasi, instrumentasi, kandungan nilai-nilai dan fungsinya yang membudaya di tengah masyarakat.
Dari sisi keilmuan, Ilmu Karawitan tumbuh sejak jaman penjajahan. Sejumlah peneliti asing mengkaji dari sisi teoritik. Misalnya Jaap Kunts yang memulai studi ilmu tersebut pada tahun 1920. Disusul Mantel Hood pada tahun 1954. Meski tidak sempurna, karena lebih merupakan penelitian teoritik, namun diakui etnomusikologi asing itu memelopori terbukanya kajian secara ilmiah karawitan.
''Kajian intensif dimulai oleh para ahli karawitan, sejalan dengan lahirnya berbagai perguruan tinggi dan sekolah karawitan di Indonesia. Ada Ki Martopengrawit yang juga pendiri serta dosen di ASKI (Akademi Seni Karawitan Indonesia) Surakarta, yang dilanjutkan dengan para muridnya seperti Prof Sumarsam SKar, Prof DR Rahayu Supanggah SKar, Prof DR Sri Hastanto SKar,'' kata dia.
Dari perkembangan penciptaan, yang juga dipelopori Martopengrawit, juga muncul Tjokrowasito, dan Ki Narto Sabdo yang sangat fenomenal karena keberaniannya menciptakan terobosan dalam penciptaan dan keberagaman karawitan. Masing-masing memiliki dan mengembangkan cirikhas yang sangat menonjol dalam penciptaan gending.
''Martopengrawit dipengaruhi kondisi sosial dan budaya, Tjokrowasito condong pada pengaruh perpolitikan sehingga muncul gending kritik sosial. Narto Sabdo didukung dengan kemampuan kesenimanan mampu menerobos berbagai ranah kehidupan.''
Yang pasti, dengan perkembangan tersebut, sudah waktunya karawitan berdiri sendiri sebagai sebuah ilmu, bukan berteduh di bawah bendera ilmu lain.( joko dwi hastanto/Cn08 )
dari Suara Merdeka Cyber News
Surakarta, CyberNews. Tak disangkal lagi, karawitan Jawa sudah menembus lapisan masyarakat internasional. Tak hanya unsur estetik musikal, namun terkandung nilai unik, keberagaman, toleransi, demokrasi, kemerdekaan, dan unsur universal lainnya. Faktor itu membuat karawitan terdorong mendunia.
''Pakar musik asing terus mengkaji dari berbagai sisi, dan menyebarkannya ke seluruh dunia. Ketertarikan itu merupakan sebuah pengakuan kesetaraan kualitas karawitan dengan musik barat. Derajat keklasikan karawitan sejajar dengan musik klasik barat,'' kata Prof DR Waridi SKar MHum dalam pidato pengukuhannya sebagau guru besar Ilmu Karawitan di Institut Seni Indonesia (ISI) Surakarta, Rabu (15/11).
Pidato pengukuhan diselingi dengan iringan berbagai gending, untuk menunjukan beberapa cirikhas perkembangan karawitan Jawa.
Dia mencontohkan, saat ini di Amerika terdapat lebih dari 200 perangkat gamelan jawa. Juga di Inggris, Belanda, Australia, Jepang, Jerman, New Zeland, yang punya puluhan perangkat. Secara intensif gamelan dipelajari tidak sekadar sebagai alat musik, namun juga dari sisi teori dan keilmuan.
''Malah akhir-akhir ini gamelan sudah mengalir ke negeri Cina, Skotlandia, Austria, dan negara-negara Eropa Timur. Itu semua merupakan jalan panjang yang dilewati secara dinamis, sesuai dengan dinamika sosial dan budaya masyarakat. Karawitan pun tampil sebagai multifaced (banyak ragam), yang memiliki dimensi multi,'' tandas dia.
Derajat keklasikan karawitan tidak saja terkait dengan perjalanan waktu, namun berhubungan dengan kualitas musikal, sistem dan organisasi, orkestrasi, instrumentasi, kandungan nilai-nilai dan fungsinya yang membudaya di tengah masyarakat.
Dari sisi keilmuan, Ilmu Karawitan tumbuh sejak jaman penjajahan. Sejumlah peneliti asing mengkaji dari sisi teoritik. Misalnya Jaap Kunts yang memulai studi ilmu tersebut pada tahun 1920. Disusul Mantel Hood pada tahun 1954. Meski tidak sempurna, karena lebih merupakan penelitian teoritik, namun diakui etnomusikologi asing itu memelopori terbukanya kajian secara ilmiah karawitan.
''Kajian intensif dimulai oleh para ahli karawitan, sejalan dengan lahirnya berbagai perguruan tinggi dan sekolah karawitan di Indonesia. Ada Ki Martopengrawit yang juga pendiri serta dosen di ASKI (Akademi Seni Karawitan Indonesia) Surakarta, yang dilanjutkan dengan para muridnya seperti Prof Sumarsam SKar, Prof DR Rahayu Supanggah SKar, Prof DR Sri Hastanto SKar,'' kata dia.
Dari perkembangan penciptaan, yang juga dipelopori Martopengrawit, juga muncul Tjokrowasito, dan Ki Narto Sabdo yang sangat fenomenal karena keberaniannya menciptakan terobosan dalam penciptaan dan keberagaman karawitan. Masing-masing memiliki dan mengembangkan cirikhas yang sangat menonjol dalam penciptaan gending.
''Martopengrawit dipengaruhi kondisi sosial dan budaya, Tjokrowasito condong pada pengaruh perpolitikan sehingga muncul gending kritik sosial. Narto Sabdo didukung dengan kemampuan kesenimanan mampu menerobos berbagai ranah kehidupan.''
Yang pasti, dengan perkembangan tersebut, sudah waktunya karawitan berdiri sendiri sebagai sebuah ilmu, bukan berteduh di bawah bendera ilmu lain.( joko dwi hastanto/Cn08 )
dari Suara Merdeka Cyber News
Minggu, 15 Mei 2011
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Ada postingan keren nih...bagi pembaca novel setia, silakan download filenya
* Muhassabah cinta seorang istri karya Asma Nadia download disini
* Biology Premier On Molecular Genetics download disini
* Laa Tahzan download disini
* Setelah Kau Menikahiku download disini
* Senja Kapas-kapas di langit karya Pipit download disini
* Abu Nawas sang Penggeli Hati download disini
Selamat mendownload dan membacanya...:)
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